Evidence Level: STRONG

Citation of Study or Systematic Review of Evidence

Archer, A., & Hughes, C. (2011). Explicit instruction: Effective and efficient teaching. New York, NY: Guilford.

Burns, M. S., Griffin, P., & Snow, C. (1999). Starting out right: A guide to promote student reading success. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Coyne, M., Chard, D., Zipoli, R., & Ruby, M. (2007). Effective strategies for teaching comprehension. In M. Coyne, E. Kame’enui, & D. Carnine (Eds.), Effective teaching strategies that accommodate diverse learners (pp. 80-109). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Denton, C. A., & Mathes, P. G. (2003). Intervention for struggling readers: Possibilities and challenges. In B. R. Foorman (Ed.), Preventing and remediating reading difficulties: Bringing science to scale (pp. 229-251). Timonium, MD: York Press.

Duke, N., & Pearson, P. D. (2002). Effective practices for developing reading comprehension. In A. Farstrup & J. Samuels (Eds.). What research has to say about reading instruction (pp. 205-242). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Ehri, L. C. (2002). Phases of acquisition in learning to read words and implications for teaching. In R. Stainthorp & P. Tomlinson (Eds.), Learning and teaching reading (pp. 7-28). Leicester, UK: The British Psychological Society.

Graves, M. F. (2006). The vocabulary book: Learning and instruction. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Honig, B., Diamond, L., & Gutlohn, L. (2008). Teaching reading sourcebook. Novato, CA: Arena Press.

Hudson, R. F., Lane, H. B., & Pullen, P. C. (2005). Reading fluency assessment and instruction: What, why, and how? The Reading Teacher, 58(8), 702-714.

Kuhn, M. R., Schwanenflugel, P. J., & Meisinger, E. B. (2010). Aligning theory and assessment of reading fluency: Automaticity, prosody, and definitions of fluency. Reading Research Quarterly, 45(2), 230-251.

Mathes, P. G., Denton, C.A., Fletcher, J. M., Anthony, J. L., Francis, D. J., & Schatschneider, C. (2005). The effects of theoretically different instruction and student characteristics on the skills of struggling readers.

Reading Research Quarterly, 40(2), 148-182. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000).

Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

RAND Reading Study Group. (2002). Reading for understanding: Toward an R&D program in reading comprehension. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.

Rasinski, T. V., Reutzel, D. R., Chard, D., & Thompson, S. L. (2011). Reading fluency. In M. Kamil, D. Pearson, E. Moje, & P. Afflerback (Eds.), Handbook on reading research, (Vol. IC, pp. 286-319). Philadelphia, PA: Routledge.

Rosenshine, B. (2012, Spring). Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. American Educator, 36(1), 12-39.

Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis) abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook for research in early literacy (pp. 97–110). New York, NY: Guilford.

Snow, C., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (Eds). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Torgeson, J. (2005). Teacher knowledge of reading. Tallahassee, FL: Florida Center for Reading Research. University of Texas at Austin. (2009). Foundations of reading instruction presentations and print files. Austin, Texas: Vaughn Gross Center.

Evidence Level: STRONG

Citation of Study or Systematic Review of Evidence

Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Adams, M. J., Foorman, B., Lundberg, I., & Beeler, T. (1998). Phonemic awareness in young children. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Al Otaiba, S., Kosanovich, M., & Torgesen, J. (2012). Assessment and instruction in phonemic awareness and word recognition skills. In A. G. Kamhi & H. W. Catts (Eds.), Language and reading disabilities (3rd ed., pp. 112-139). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Berninger, V., Vaughan, K., Abbott, R., Brooks, A., Abbott, S., Reed, E., . . . Graham, S. (1998). Early intervention for spelling problems: Teaching spelling units of varying size within a multiple connections framework. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 587-605.

Blachman, B. A. (2000). Phonological awareness. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Rosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (vol. 3, pp. 484-502). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Blachman, B. A. , Ball, E. W., Black, R., & Tangel, D. M. (2000). Road to the code: A phonological awareness program for young children. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Brady, S. A. (2011). Efficacy of phonics teaching for reading outcomes: Indications from post-NRP research. In S. A. Brady. D. Braze, & C. A. Fowler (Eds.). Explaining individual differences in reading: Theory and evidence (pp. 69-75 ) New York, NY: Psychology Press.

Connor, C. M., Alberto, P. A., Compton, D. L., & O’Connor, R. E. (2014). Improving reading outcomes for students with or at risk for reading disabilities: A synthesis of the contributions from the Institute of Education Sciences Research Centers (NCERS 2014-3000). Washington, DC: National Center for Special Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

Ehri, L. (1997). Phonemic awareness and learning to read. Literacy Development in Young Children, 4, 2-3.

Ehri, L. C. (1998). Grapheme-phoneme knowledge is essential for learning to read words in English. In J. L. Metsala & L. C. Ehri (Eds.), Word recognition in beginning literacy (pp. 3-40). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Ehri, L. C. (2014). Orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 5-21.

Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Willows, D. M., Schuster, B. V., Yaghoub-Zadeh, Z., & Shanahan, T. (2001). Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36(3), 250-287.

Ehri, L. C., & Roberts, T. (2006). The roots of learning to read and write: Acquisition of letters and phonemic awareness. In D. K. Dickinson & S. B. Neuman (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (Vol. 2, pp. 113-131). New York, NY: Guilford.

Foorman, B. R., & Torgesen, J. K. (2001). Critical elements of classroom and small-group instruction promote reading success in all children. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16, 203-212.

Lane, H. B., & Pullen, P. C. (2004). Phonological awareness assessment and instruction: A sound beginning. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Moats, L. (1997). Teaching reading is rocket science: What expert teachers of reading should know and be able to do. Washington, DC: American Federation of Teachers. Retrieved from www.aft.org/pubs-reports/downloads/ teachers/rocketsci.pdf

Moats, L. C. (2003). The speech to print workbook: Language essentials for teachers. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Moats, L.C. (2004). Language essentials for teachers of reading and spelling (LETRS), Module 2, The speech sounds of English. Longmont, Co: Sopris West.

Moats, L.C. (2004). Language essentials for teachers of reading and spelling (LETRS), Module 3, Spellography for teachers. Longmont, Co: Sopris West.

O’Connor, R. E., & Jenkins, J. R. (1999). Prediction of reading disabilities in kindergarten and first grade. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 159-197.
Pressley, M. (1998). Reading instruction that works. New York, NY: Guilford.

Rayner, K., Foorman, B. R., Perfetti, C. A., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2001). How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2(2), 31-74.

Seidenberg, M. S., & McClellan, J. L. (1989). A distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming. Psychological Review, 96, 523-568.

Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Torgesen, J. K., & Mathes, P. (2000). A basic guide to understanding, assessing, and teaching phonological awareness. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. Uhry, J. K. (2011). Teaching phonemic awareness. In J. R. Birsh (Ed.), Multisensory teaching of basic language skills (pp. 113-143). Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Vaughn, S., & Linan-Thompson, S. (2004). Research-based methods of reading instruction Grades K–3. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Evidence Level: STRONG

Citation of Study or Systematic Review of Evidence

Adams, A. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about reading. Boston, MA: Institute of Technology.

Armbruster, B. B. (2001). Put reading first: The research building blocks for teaching children to read. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and U.S. Department of Education.

Bear, D. R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S., & Johnston, F. (2011). Words their way: Word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling instruction. Columbus, OH: Pearson.

Birsh, J. (2011). Multisensory teaching of basic language skills. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Carreker, S. (199). Teaching reading: Accurate decoding and fluency. In J. Birsh (Ed.), Multisensory teaching of basic language skills (pp. 141-182).Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Cunningham, A. A., & Zibulsky, J. (2014). Book smart: How to develop and support successful, motivated readers. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Ebbers, S., & Hougen, M. (2014). Academic vocabulary development: Meaningful, memorable, and morphological. In Hougen, M. (Ed.). Fundamentals of literacy instruction & assessment (pp. 6-12). Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Ehri, L. (2002). Phases of acquisition in learning to read words and implications for teaching. In R. Stainthorp & P. Thomlinson (Eds.), Learning and teaching reading (pp. 7-28). London, England: British Journal of Educational Psychology Monograph Series II.

Ehri, L. (2005a). Development of sight word reading: Phases and findings. In M. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), The science of reading: A handbook (pp. 135-154). Malden, M: Blackwell.

Ehri, L. (2005b). Learning to read words: Theory, findings and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9, 167-188.

Ehri, L. C. (2014). Orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 5-21.

Honing, B., Diamond, L., & Gutlohn, L. (2008). Teaching reading sourcebook. Novato, CA: Arena Press.

Hougen, M., & Smartt, S. (2012). Fundamentals of literacy instruction and assessment pre-K-6. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Moats, L. C. (2005) Language essentials for teachers of reading and spelling (LETRS) Longmont, CO: Sopris West.

Moats, L. C. (2010). The speech to print: Language essentials for teachers. Baltimore, MD: Brookes. Neuhaus Education Center. (1992). Alphabet arcs. Houston, TX: Author.

Neuhaus, G., E. & Swank, P. R. (2002). Understanding the relations between RAN letters subtest components and word reading in first grade students. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(2), 158-174.

O’Connor, R. (2014). Teaching word recognition: Effective strategies for students with learning difficulties. New York, NY: Guilford.

Vaughn, S., & Linan-Thompson, S. (2004). Research-based methods of reading instruction K-3. Alexandria, VA: Association for Curriculum and Supervision.

Wolf, M., O’Brien, B., Adams, K. D., Joffe, T., Jeffrey, J., & Lovett, M. (2003). Working for time: Reflecions on naming speed, reading fluency, and intervention. In B. R. Foorman (Ed.), Preventing and remediating reading difficulties: Bringing science to scale. (pp. 355-380). Timonium, MD: York Press.

Evidence Level: MODERATE

Citation of Study or Systematic Review of Evidence

Connor, C. M., Alberto, P. A., Compton, D. L., & O’Connor, R. E. (2014). Improving reading outcomes for students with or at risk for reading disabilities: A synthesis of the contributions from the Institute of Education Sciences Research Centers (NCSER 2014-3000). Washington, DC: National Center for Special Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

Dynamic Measurement Group. (2010). Dynamic Indicators of basic early literacy skills NEXT (7th ed.). Eugene, OR: Institute for Development of Educational Achievement.

Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hamlett, C. L., Walz, L., & Germann, G. (1993). Formative evaluation of academic progress: How much growth can we expect? School Psychology Review, 22(1), 27-48.

Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hosp, M. K., & Jenkins, J. (2001). Oral reading fluency as an indicator of reading competence: A theoretical, empirical, and historical analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5(3), 239-256.

Good, R. H., Simmons, D. C., & Kame’enui, E. J. (2001). The importance and decision-making utility of a continuum of fluency-based indicators of foundational reading skills for third-grade high-stakes outcomes. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, 257-288.

Hasbrouck, J. (2004, October). Fluency: An overlooked component of effective reading instruction. Presented at a meeting of the Texas Higher Education Collaborative, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX.

Hasbrouck, J. E. (2010). Educators as physicians: Using RTI data for effective decision making. Wellesley Hills, MA: Gibson Hasbrouck & Associates.

Hasbrouck, J., & Hougen, M. (2012) . Fluency instruction. In M. Hougen & S. Smart (Eds.), Fundamentals of literacy instruction and assessment PK-K-6. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Hasbrouck, J. E., & Tindal, G. A. (2006). Oral reading fluency norms: A valuable assessment tool for reading teachers. Reading Teacher, 59(7), 636-644.

Honig, B., Diamond, L., & Gutlohn, L. (2008). Teaching reading sourcebook. Novato, CA: Arena Press.

Hudson, R. F., Lane, H. B., & Pullen, P. C. (2005). Reading fluency assessment and instruction: What, why, and how. Reading Teacher, 58(8), 702-714. Hudson, R. F., Torgesen, J. K., Lane, H. B., & Turner, S. J. (2006). Predictors of decoding fluency: Explaining individual differences in children. Unpublished manuscript. Huey, E. B. (1908). The psychology and pedagogy of reading. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Institute of Education Sciences. (2002). National assessment of educational progress: 2002 oral reading study. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

Katzir, T., Youngsuk, K., Wolf, M., O’Brien, B., Kennedy, B., & Lovett, M. (2006). Reading fluency: The whole is more than the parts. Annals of Dyslexia, 56(1), 51-82.

Kuhn, M., & Schwanenflugel, P. J. (2006). Fluency-oriented reading instruction: A merging of theory and practice. In K. A. Dougherty Stahl & M. C. McKenna (Eds.), Reading research at work: Foundations of effective practice. New York, NY: Guilford.

Kuhn, M., & Stahl, S. (2003). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 3-21.

Mercer, C., & Campbell, K. (1998). Great leaps reading program. Micanopy, FL: Diarmuid. National Center for Education Statistics. (2005).

National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). Oral Reading Fluency Scale. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/studies/ors/scale.aspx National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00-4754). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

National Research Council. (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. O’Connor, R. E. (2014). Teaching word recognition: Effective strategies for students with learning difficulties. New York, NY: Guilford.

Osborn, J., & Lehr, F. (2003). A focus on fluency. Honolulu, HI: Pacific Resources for Education and Learning.

Pikulski, J. J., & Chard, D. J. (2005). Fluency: Bridge between decoding and reading comprehension. Reading Teacher, 58(6), 510-519.

Rasinski, T. (2004). Assessing reading fluency. Honolulu, HI: Pacific Resources for Education and Learning.

Rasinski, T., Blachowicz, C., & Lems, K. (Eds.). (2006). Fluency instruction: Research-based best practices. New York, NY: Guilford. Samuels, S. J. (1979). The method of repeated readings. Reading Teacher, 32, 403-408.

Samuels, S. J. (1997). Toward a model of reading fluency. In S. J. Samuels & A. E. Farstrup (Eds.), What research has to say about fluency instruction (pp. 24-46). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Samuels, S. J., & Farstrup, A. (2006). What research has to say about fluency instruction. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Shanahan, T. (2014). Text complexity and learning to read. Presentation at the International Reading Association Conference, New Orleans, LA. Shinn, M. (1998). Advanced applications of curriculum-based measurements. New York, NY: Guilford.

Stahl, S. A., & Kuhn, M. R. (2002). Making it sound like language: Developing fluency. Reading Teacher, 55(6), 582-584.

Stanovich, K. E. (1991). Word recognition: Changing perspectives. In R. Bar, M. L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2, pp. 418–452). New York, NY: Longman.

Stickland, D., Ganske, K., & Monroe, J. (2002). Supporting struggling readers and writers: Strategies for classroom intervention. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.

Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643-662.

Therrien, W. J. (2004). Fluency and comprehension gains as a result of repeated reading: A meta-analysis. Remedial and Special Education, 25(4), 252–261.

Tindal, G. (2005). Oral reading fluency: 90 years of measurement. Eugene, OR: Behavioral Research and Teaching.

Torgesen, J. K., & Hudson, R. F. (2006). Reading fluency: Critical issues for struggling readers. In S. J. Samuels & A. E. Farstrup (Eds.), What research has to say about fluency instruction (pp. 130-158). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Vaughn, S., & Linan-Thompson, S. (2004). Research-based methods of reading instruction. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Wolf, M., & Bowers, P. G. (1999). The double-deficit hypothesis for the developmental dyslexias. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 415-438.

Wolf, M., & Katzir-Cohen, T. (2001). Reading fluency and its intervention. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5(3), 211-239.

Wolf, M., Miller, L., & Donnelly, K. (2000). Retrieval, automaticity, vocabulary elaboration, orthography (RAVE-O): A comprehensive, fluency-based reading intervention program. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33(4), 375-386.

Worthy, J. (2005). Readers’ Theater for building fluency. New York, NY: Scholastic.

Evidence Level: STRONG

Citation of Study or Systematic Review of Evidence

Anderson, R. C., & Nagy, W. E. (1991). Word meanings. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2, pp. 690-724). New York, NY: Longman.

Anderson, R. C., & Nagy, W. (1992). The vocabulary conundrum. American Educator, 16(4), 14-18, 44-47.

Archer, A., & Hughes, C. (2011). Explicit instruction: Effective and efficient teaching. New York, NY: Guilford.

Baumann, J. F., & Kame’ennui, E. (2004). Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice. New York, NY: Guilford.

Baumann, J. F., Kame’enui, E. J., & Ash, G. E. (2003). Research on vocabulary instruction: Voltaire redux. In J. Flood, J. M. Jenson, D. Lapp, & J. R. Squire (Eds.), Handbook on research on teaching the language arts (pp. 752-785). New York, NY: Macmillan.

Baumann, J. F., Ware, D., & Edwards, E. C. (2007). Bumping into spicy, tasty words that catch your tongue: A formative experiment on vocabulary instruction. The Reading Teacher, 61(2), 108-122.

Bear, D. R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S., & Johnston, F. (2014). Words their way: Word study for phonics, vocabulary, and spelling instruction. London, England: Pearson.

Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York, NY: Guilford.

Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2008). Creating robust vocabulary: Frequently asked questions & extended examples. New York, NY: Guilford.

Biemiller, A. (2001). Teaching vocabulary. Early, direct, and sequential. American Educator, 25, 24-28.

Blachowicz, C., & Fisher, P. (2005). Teaching vocabulary in all classrooms. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1997). Early reading acquisition and its relationship to reading experience and ability 10 years later. Developmental Psychology, 33(6), 934-945.

Cunningham, A., & Stanovich, K. (1998). What reading does for the mind. American Educator, 22, 8-15.

Dale, E. (1965). Vocabulary measurement: Techniques and major findings. Elementary English, 42, 895-901, 948.

Ebbers, S. (2003). Vocabulary through morphemes. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.

Ebbers, S. A., & Denton, C. A. (2008). A root awakening: Vocabulary instruction for older students with reading difficulties. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 23(2), 90-102.

Farstrup, A., & Samuels, S. (Eds.). (2008). What research has to say about vocabulary instruction. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Foorman, B. R., & Schatschneider, C. (2003). Measurement of teaching practices during reading/language arts instruction and its relationship to student achievement. In S. Vaughn & K. L. Briggs (Eds.), Reading in the classroom: Systems for the observation of teaching and learning (pp. 1-30). Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Frayer, D., Frederick, W. C., & Klausmeier, H. J. (1969). A schema for testing the level of cognitive mastery. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Center for Education.

Graves, M. F. (2006). The vocabulary book: Learning & instruction. New York, NY: Teacher’s College Press.

Hart, B., & Risley, T. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Heimlich, J. E., & Pittelman, S. D. (1986). Semantic mapping: Classroom application. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Hiebert, E., & Kamil, M. (Eds.). (2005). Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing scientific research to practice. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Hougen, M., & Ebbers, S. (2012). A comprehensive, interactive approach to vocabulary development. In M. Hougen & S. Smartt (Eds.). Fundamentals of literacy instruction and assessment Pre-K-6 (pp. 150-170). Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Johnston, F., Bear, D., & Invernizzi, M. (2006). Words their way: Word sorts for derivational relations spellers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Lederer, R. (1998). Crazy English. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.

Lehr, F., Osborn, J., & Hiebert, F. (2004). A focus on vocabulary. Honolulu, HI: Pacific Resources for Education and Learning.

Marzano, R. (2004). Building background knowledge for academic achievement: Research on what works in schools. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Nagy, W. (1988). Teaching vocabulary to improve reading comprehension. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Nagy, W. E. (2005). Why vocabulary instruction needs to be long-term and comprehensive. In E. H. Hiebert & M. L. Kamil (Eds.), Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing scientific research to practice (pp. 27-44). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Nagy, W. E. (2007). Metalinguistic awareness and the vocabulary-comprehension connection. In R. K. Wagner, A. E. Muse, & K. R. Tannenbaum (Eds.), Vocabulary acquisition: Implications for reading comprehension (pp. 52-77). New York, NY: Guilford.

Nagy, W. E., & Scott, J. A. (2000). Vocabulary processes. In M. L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 269-284). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Pearson, D. P., Hiebert, E., & Kamil, M. (2007). Vocabulary assessment: What we know and what we need to learn. Reading Research Quarterly, 42(2), 282-295.

Robbins, C., & Ehri, L. (1994). Reading storybooks to kindergartners helps them learn new vocabulary words. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 54-64.

Scarborough, H. S. (1998). Early identification of children at risk for reading disabilities: Phonological awareness and some other promising predictors. In B. K.

Shapiro, P. J. Accardo, & A. J. Capute (Eds.), Specific reading disabilities: A review of the spectrum (pp. 75-119). Timonium, MD: York Press.

Schwartz, R. M. (1988). Learning to learn vocabulary in content area textbooks. Journal of Reading, 32(2), 108-118.

Schwartz, R. M., & Raphael, T. E. (1986). Concept of definition:A key to improving students’ vocabulary. Reading Teacher, 39, 198-203.

Scott, J. A., & Nagy, W. E. (2004). Developing word consciousness. In J. F. Baumann & E. J. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 106-117). New York, NY: Guilford.

Scott, J., Skobel, B. & Wells, J. (2008). The word-conscious classroom: Building the vocabulary readers and writers need. New York, NY: Scholastic.

Singson, M., Mahony, D., & Mann, V. (2000). The relation between reading ability and morphological skills: Evidence from derivational suffixes. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 12, 219-252.

Stahl, S. A., & Nagy, W. E. (2006). Teaching word meanings. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Stahl, S., &

Stahl, K. A. (2004). Word wizards all: Teaching word meanings in preschool and primary education. In J. Baumann & E. Kame’enui (Eds.), Vocabulary instruction: Research to practice (pp. 2001-2017). New York, NY: Guilford.

Steig, W. (1982). Doctor DeSoto. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.

Evidence Level: MODERATE

Citation of Study or Systematic Review of Evidence

Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Archer, A., & Hughes, C. (2011). Explicit instruction: Effective and efficient teaching. New York, NY: Guilford.

Blachowicz, C., & Ogle, D. (2001). Reading comprehension: Strategies for independent learners. New York, NY: Guilford.

Block, C. C., & Pressley, M. (Eds.). (2001). Comprehension instruction: Research-based best practice. New York, NY: Guilford.

Bransford, J., & Johnson, M. (1972). Contextual prerequisites for understanding: Some investigations of comprehension and recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 726-727.

Burns, M. S., Griffin, P., & Snow, C. (1999). Starting out right: A guide to promote student reading success. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Children’s Learning Institute at The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston. (2009). Elements of understanding: Deeper instruction in reading and listening comprehension. Creating mental images: Coaching to make it happen. Houston, TX: Texas Education Agency and University of Texas System.

Collins-Block, C., & Mangieri, J. (2003). Exemplary literacy teachers: Promoting success for all children in grades K-5. New York, NY: Guilford.

Collins-Block, C., Rodgers, L., & Johnson, R. (2004). Comprehension process instruction: Creating reading success in grades K-3. New York, NY: Guilford.

Connor, C. M., Alberto, P. A., Compton, D. L., & O’Connor, R. E. (2014). Improving reading outcomes for students with or at risk for reading disabilities: A synthesis of the contributions from the Institute of Education Sciences Research Centers (NCSER 2014-3000). Washington, DC: National Center for Special Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

Coyne, M., Chard, D., Zipoli, R., & Ruby, M. (2007). Effective strategies for teaching comprehension. In M. Coyne, E. Kame’enui, & D. Carnine (Eds.), Effective strategies that accommodate diverse learners (pp. 80–109). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Duke, N. K. (2004). The case for informational text. Educational Leadership, 61(6), 40-44.

Duke, N. K., & Carlisle, J. (2010). The development of comprehension. In M. L. Kamil, P. D. Pearson, E. B. Moje, & P. P. Afflerbach (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. IV, pp. 199-228). New York, NY: Routledge.

Duke, N. K., & Pearson, P. D. (2002). Effective practices for developing reading comprehension. In A. Farstrup & S. J. Samuels (Eds.). What research has to say about reading instruction. (pp. 205-242). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Dycha, D. (2012). Comprehension, Grades K-3. In M. Hougen & S. Smartt (Eds.). Fundamentals of literacy instruction & assessment, Pre-K-6. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Farstrup, A., & Samuels, S. J. (Eds.). What research has to say about reading instruction. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2008). Better learning through structured teaching: A framework for the gradual release of responsibility. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Gersten, R., Fuchs, L., Williams, J., & Baker, S. (2001). Teaching reading comprehension strategies to students with learning disabilities: A review of research. Review of Educational Research, 71(2), 279-320.

Graves, M. R., Juel, C., & Graves, B. B. (2001). Teaching reading in the 21st century (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Harvey, S., & Goudvis, A. (2007). Strategies that work: Teaching comprehension to enhance understanding. York, ME: Stenhouse. Henkes, K. (1991). Chrysanthemum. New York, NY: Greenwillow.

Hibbing, A. N., & Rankin-Erickson, J. L., (2003). A picture is worth a thousand words: Using visual images to improve comprehension for middle school struggling readers. The Reading Teacher, 56, 758-771.

Hiebert, E. (2012). The Common Core State Standards and text complexity. In M. Hougen & S. Smartt, (Eds.). Fundamentals of literacy instruction & assessment Pre-K-6. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Honig, B., Diamond, L., & Gutlohn, L. (2008). Teaching reading sourcebook. Novato, CA: Arena Press.

Hougen, M., & Smartt, S. (2012). Fundamentals of literacy and instruction Pre-K-6. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Keene, E., & Zimmerman, S. (2007). Mosaic of thought: The power of comprehension instruction (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Klinger, J., Vaughn, S., Boardman, A., & Swanson, E. (2012). Now we get it! Boosting comprehension with collaborative strategic reading. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Klingner, J., Vaughn, S., Dimino, J., Schumm, J. S., & Bryant, D. (2001). Collaborative strategic reading. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.

McGregor, T. (2007). Comprehension connections: Bridges to strategic reading. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Mason, L. H. (2004). Explicit self-regulated strategy development versus reciprocal questioning: Effects on expository reading comprehension among struggling readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(2), 283-296.

Moats, L. (2005). Language essentials for teachers of reading and spelling, Module 6. Digging for meaning: Teaching text comprehension. Boston, MA: Sopris West.

National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council for Chief State School Officers. (2010). Common Core State Standards initiative: Preparing Americans students for college and career. Retrieved from http://www.corestandards.org/National Institute for Literacy. (2006).

Oakhill, Jane, Cain, Kate, and Elbro, Carsten. 2015. Understanding and Teaching Reading Comprehension. New York, NY: Routledge.

Put reading first: The research building blocks of reading instruction (3rd ed.). Jessup, MD: ED Pubs. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00-4754). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Pressley, M. (2006). Reading instruction that works: The case for balanced teaching (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford.

RAND Reading Study Group. (2002). Reading for understanding: Toward an R&D program in reading comprehension. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.

Rosenshine, B. (2012, Spring). Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. American Educator, 36(1), 12-19.

Shanahan, T., Callison, K., Carrier, C., Duke, N. K., Pearson, P. D. Schatschneider, C., & Torgesen, J. (2010). Improving reading comprehension in kindergarten through 3rd grade: A practice guide (NCEE 210-4038). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

Taylor, B., Person, P. D., Clark, K., & Walpole, S. (1999). Beating the odds in teaching all children to read (CIERA Report No. 2-006). Ann Arbor, MI: Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement.

Tovani, C. (2000). I read it, but I don’t get it: Comprehension strategies for adolescent readers. York, ME: Stenhouse.

Vaughn, S., Chard, D. J., Pedrotty-Bryant, D., Coleman, M., Tyler, B. J., Linan-Thompson, S., & Kouzekanani, K. (2000). Fluency and comprehension interventions for third-grade students. Remedial and Special Education, 21(6), 325-335.

Vaughn, S., & Linan-Thompson, S. (2004). Research-based methods of reading instruction Grades K-3. Alexandria, VA: Association for Curriculum and Supervision.

Wigfield, A., & Guthrie, J. T. (2000). Engagement and motivation in reading. Handbook of Reading Research, 3, 403-422.

Evidence Level: STRONG

Citation of Study or Systematic Review of Evidence

Ehri, L. C. (2014). Orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling, memory, and vocabulary learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 5-21 doi:10.1080/10888438.2013.819356 Filter, K. J., McKenna, M. K., Benedict, E. A., Horner, R. H., Todd, A., & Watson, J. (2007). Check in/check out: A post-hoc evaluation of an efficient, secondary-level targeted intervention for reducing problem behaviors in schools. Education and Treatment of Children, 30(1), 69-84

Foorman, B. R., & Torgesen, J. (2001). Critical elements of classroom and small group instruction promote reading success in all children. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16, 203-212.

Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hosp, M. K., & Jenkins, J. (2001). Oral reading fluency as an indicator of reading competence: A theoretical, empirical, and historical analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5(3), 239-256.

Fuchs, L. S., Deno, S. L., & Mirkin, P. K. (1984). The effects of frequent curriculum-based measurement and evaluation on pedagogy, student achievement, and student awareness of learning. American Educational Research Journal, 21(2), 449-460.

Germann, G., & Tindal, G. (1985). An application of curriculum-based assessment: The use of direct and repeated measurement. Exceptional Children, 52(3), 244-265.

Good, R. H., Baker, S. K., & Peyton, J. A. (2009). Making sense of nonsense word fluency: Determining adequate progress in early first-grade reading. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 25(1), 33-56.

Gresham, F. M., Gansle, K. A., & Noell, G. H. (1993). Treatment integrity in applied behavior analysis with children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26, 257-263.

Haager, D., Dimino, J. A., & Windmueller, M. P. (2014). Interventions for reading success (2nd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Hasbrouck, J., Ihnot, C., & Rogers, G. (1999). Read naturally: A strategy to increase oral reading fluency. Reading Research and Instruction, 39(1), 27-37.

Hasbrouck, J., & Tindal, G. (2006). ORF norms: A valuable assessment tool for reading teachers. The Reading Teacher, 59(7), 636-644.Hasbrouck, Woldbeck, Ihnot, & Parkter. (1999).

Hudson, R. F., Lane, H. B., & Pullen, P. C. (2005). Reading fluency assessment and instruction: What, why, and how? The Reading Teacher, 58, 702-714.

The IRIS Center for Training Enhancements. (2008). RTI (part 4). Retrieved from http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/rti04-alltogether/#content Juel, C. (1988).

Kilpatrick, David A. 2015. Essentials of Assessing, Preventing, and Overcoming Reading Difficulties. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.
Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of 54 children from first through fourth grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(4), 437-447.

Kame’enui, E. J., Francis, D. J., Fuchs, L., Good, R. H., O’Connor, R. E., & Simmons, D. C. (2002). An analysis of reading assessment instruments for K-3. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy. Retrieved from http://idea.uoregon.edu/assessment/index.html

Kerr & Nelson. (2010). Strategies for addressing behavior problems in the classroom. Upper Saddle River, NY: Pearson.

Marston, D. (1988). The effectiveness of special education: a time series analysis of reading performance in regular and special education settings. The Journal of Special Education, 21(4), 13-26.

National Center on Intensive Intervention. (October, 2013). Supplemental interventions: Setting the foundation for intensive support. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, National Center on Intensive Intervention. Retrieved from http://www.intensiveintervention.org/

National Center on Response to Intervention. (2010). Implementer Series Module 1: Screening. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, National Center on Response to Intervention. Retrieved from http://www.rti4success.org/resource/essential-components-rti-closer-lookresponse-intervention

National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Rockville, MD: NICHD Clearinghouse.

O’Connor, R. E. (2007). Teaching word recognition: Effective strategies for students with learning difficulties. New York, NY: Guilford.

O’Donnell, C. L. (2008). Defining, conceptualizing, and measuring fidelity of implementation and its relationship to outcomes in K–12 curriculum intervention research. Review of Educational Research, 78, 33-84.

Osborn, J., Lehr, F., & Hiebert, E. (2002). A focus on fluency. Honolulu, HI: Pacific Resources for Education and Learning.

Rasinski, T. V., Blachowicz, C. L., & Lems, K. (Eds.). (2012). Fluency instruction: Research-based best practices. New York, NY: Guilford.

Rasinski, T. V., Reutzel, D. R., Chard, D., & Linan-Thompson, S. (2011). Reading fluency. In M. L. Kamil, P. D. Pearson, B. Moje, & P. Afflerbach (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. IV, pp. 286-319). New York, NY: Routledge.

Sawyer, R. K. (2006). Educating for innovation. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 1(1), 41-48. Shinn, M. R. (Ed.). (1989). Curriculum-based measurement: Assessing special children. New York, NY: Guilford.

Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of the individual differences in the acquisition of reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360-407 Texas Education Agency. (1998).

Evidence Level: STRONG

Citation of Study or Systematic Review of Evidence

Archer, A. L., Gleason, M., & Vachon, V. (2002). REWARDS (Reading Excellence: Word Attack & Rate Development Strategies). Longmont, CO: Sopris West.

Archer, A. L., & Hughes, C. A. (2011). Explicit instruction: Effective and efficient teaching. New York, NY: Guilford.

Danielson, L., & Rosenquist, C. (2014). Introduction to the TEC special issue on data-based individualization. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 46, 6-12.

Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., & Vaughn, S. (2014). What is intensive instruction and why is it important? TEACHING Exceptional Children, 46, 14. Lemons, C. J., Kearns, D. M., & Davidson, K. A. (2014). Data-based individualization in reading: Intensifying interventions for students with significant reading disabilities. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 46, 20-29.

Lenz, B. K., & Hughes, C. A. (1990). A word identification strategy for adolescents with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 149-158, 163.
Lindamood, P., & Lindamood, P. (l998). The Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing program for reading, spelling, and speech, Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

Lovett, M. W., Lacerenza, L., & Borden, S. L. (2000). Putting struggling readers on the PHAST track: A program to integrate phonological and strategy-based remedial reading instruction and maximize outcomes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 458-476.

O’Connor, R. E., & Bell, K. M. (2004). Teaching students with reading disability to read words. In A. Stone, E. Silliman, B. Ehren, & K. Apel (Eds.), Handbook of language and literacy: Development and disorders (pp. 479-496). New York, NY: Guilford.

O’Connor, R. E., Bell, K. M., Harty, K. R., Larkin, L. K., Sackor, S., & Zigmond, N. (2002). Teaching reading to poor readers in the intermediate grades: A comparison of text difficulty. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 474-485.

O’Connor, R. E., Fulmer, D., Harty, K., & Bell, K. (2005). Layers of reading intervention in kindergarten through third grade: Changes in teaching and child outcomes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 440-455.

Vaughn, S., Wanzek, J., Murray, C. S., & Roberts, G. (2012). Intensive interventions for students struggling in reading and mathematics: A practice guide. Portsmouth, NH: RMC Research Corporation, Center on Instruction.

Wilson, B. (2002). The Wilson Reading System. Millbury, MA: Wilson Language Training.

Evidence Level: MODERATE

Citation of Study or Systematic Review of Evidence

Bertram, R.M., Blase, K.A., & Fixsen, D.L. (2015). Improving programs and outcomes: Implementation frameworks and organization change. Research on Social Work Practice, 25(4), 477–487.

Klingner, J.K., Boardman, A.G., & McMaster, K.L. (2013). What does it take to scale up and sustain evidence-based practices? Exceptional Children, 79(2), 195–211.